Download Critical Thinking PDF by Richard Paul; Linda Elder (2023)

Written by international authorities on critical thinking, this book details an integrated, universal concept of critical thinking that is both substantive and applicable to any and every situation in which human thinking is necessary. It provides students with the basic intellectual tools needed for life-long learning, helping them understand the mind and how its three functions—thinking, feeling, motivating—influence one another. Critical Thinking fosters the development of fair-minded critical thinking and explores essential intellectual standards of clarity, precision, accuracy, logicalness, significance, depth, breadth, and fairness; the importance of skilled and deep questioning; and how to take thinking apart in order to find problems in thinking and then improve thinking. The fourth edition features Think for Yourself activities Glossary of critical thinking terms New chapter on argumentation New chapters on critical thinking in the professions (including critique of disciplines) Discussion of the Internet's effects on our lives Updated discussions of media bias and political propaganda, as well as egocentric and sociocentric thought as barriers to critical thinking The Foundation for Critical Thinking continually offers new supplementary resources on its website (www.CriticalThinking.org) and in its online critical thinking community (www.CriticalThinkingCommunity.org).

About the AuthorsPage: iiiContentsPage: vPrefacePage: xvNew to This Fourth EditionPage: xviiAcknowledgmentsPage: xixIntroductionPage: xxiA Start-­Up Definition Of Critical ThinkingPage: xxiAn Expanded Conception of Critical ThinkingPage: xxiiHow Skilled Are You As A Thinker?Page: xxiiiGood Thinking Requires Hard WorkPage: xxvThe Roots of Critical ThinkingPage: xxixBecome a Critic of Your ThinkingPage: xxxEstablish New Habits of ThoughtPage: xxxiiDevelop Confidence in Your Ability to Reason and Figure Things OutPage: xxxiiiAn Overview of The Primary Concepts in Critical Thinking in Diagram FormPage: xxxviiThe Fairminded Critical ThinkerPage: xxxixThe Selfish Critical ThinkerPage: xlThe Naïve ThinkerPage: xliiA Substantive Approach to Critical ThinkingPage: xliiiCritical Thinkers Routinely Apply Intellectual Standards to the Elements of ReasoningPage: xlivWe Take Our Thinking Apart to Find Problems in Our Thinking—and Solve ThemPage: xlvIntellectual Standards Help You Think BetterPage: xlviCritical Thinkers Seek Better Ways of Doing ThingsPage: xlviiiCritical Thinkers Believe in the Power of Their MindsPage: xlviii1: Become A Fairminded ThinkerPage: 1Weak Versus Strong Critical ThinkingPage: 1What Does Fairmindedness Require?Page: 5Intellectual Humility: Strive to Discover the Extent of Your IgnorancePage: 6Intellectual Courage: Develop the Courage to Challenge Popular Beliefs and Your Own BeliefsPage: 9Intellectual Empathy: Learn to Enter Opposing Views EmpathicallyPage: 11Intellectual Integrity: Hold Yourself to the Same Standards to Which You Hold OthersPage: 13Intellectual Perseverance: Refuse to Give Up Easily; Work Your Way through Complexities and FrustratPage: 15Confidence in Reason: Be Moved by Evidence and Good Reasoning as You Seek the TruthPage: 16Intellectual Autonomy: Value Independence of ThoughtPage: 19Recognize the Interdependence of Intellectual VirtuesPage: 21ConclusionPage: 252: The First Four Stages of Development: At What Level of Thinking Would You Place Yourself?Page: 27Stage 1: The Unreflective ThinkerPage: 28Stage 2: The Challenged ThinkerPage: 29Stage 3: The Beginning ThinkerPage: 32Stage 4: The Practicing ThinkerPage: 36A “Game Plan” for ImprovementPage: 37A Game Plan for Devising a Game PlanPage: 37Integrating Strategies One by OnePage: 403: Self-­Understanding in a Complex WorldPage: 43Monitor the Egocentrism in Your Thought and LifePage: 44Make a Commitment to FairmindednessPage: 45Recognize the Mind’s Three Distinctive FunctionsPage: 46Understand That You Have a Special Relationship to Your MindPage: 47Connect Academic Subjects to Your Life and ProblemsPage: 52Learn Both Intellectually and EmotionallyPage: 52Be Aware of How the Internet and Other Technologies Pervade and Affect Your LifePage: 54How the Internet Works: The Big PicturePage: 55Assess a Given Website Using Critical Thinking StandardsPage: 564: The Parts of ThinkingPage: 57Reasoning is Everywhere in Human LifePage: 58Reasoning Has PartsPage: 59A First Look at the Elements of ThoughtPage: 61An Everyday Example: Jack and JillPage: 65Analysis of the ExamplePage: 66How the Parts of Thinking Fit TogetherPage: 66The Relationship Between the ElementsPage: 67Critical Thinkers Think to Some PurposePage: 68Critical Thinkers Take Command of ConceptsPage: 69Critical Thinkers Assess InformationPage: 72Inert InformationPage: 72Activated IgnorancePage: 73Activated KnowledgePage: 74Critical Thinkers Distinguish Between Inferences and AssumptionsPage: 77Critical Thinkers Think Through ImplicationsPage: 83Critical Thinkers Think Across Points of ViewPage: 85The Point of View of the Critical ThinkerPage: 88ConclusionPage: 885: Standards for ThinkingPage: 89Take a Deeper Look at Universal Intellectual StandardsPage: 91ClarityPage: 91AccuracyPage: 92PrecisionPage: 94RelevancePage: 95DepthPage: 96BreadthPage: 97LogicPage: 98SignificancePage: 99FairnessPage: 99SufficiencyPage: 101Bring Together the Elements of Reasoning and the Intellectual StandardsPage: 104Purpose, Goal, or End in ViewPage: 105Question at Issue or Problem to Be SolvedPage: 106Point of View or Frame of ReferencePage: 108Information, Data, ExperiencesPage: 108Concepts, Theories, IdeasPage: 109AssumptionsPage: 110Implications and ConsequencesPage: 110InferencesPage: 111Brief Guidelines for Using Intellectual StandardsPage: 1126: Ask Questions That Lead to Good ThinkingPage: 123The Importance of Questions in ThinkingPage: 123Questioning Your QuestionsPage: 124Dead Questions Reflect Inert MindsPage: 125Three Categories of QuestionsPage: 126Become a Socratic QuestionerPage: 130Focus Your Thinking on the Type of Question Being AskedPage: 132Focus Your Questions on Universal Intellectual Standards for ThoughtPage: 134Focus Your Questions on the Elements of ThoughtPage: 135Focus Your Questions on Prior QuestionsPage: 137Focus Your Questions on Domains of ThinkingPage: 138ConclusionPage: 1417: Master the Thinking, Master the ContentPage: 143Go Beyond Superficial Memorization to Deep LearningPage: 144The Relation of Content to ThinkingPage: 145Understand Content Through Thinking and Thinking Through ContentPage: 146Learning Any Content Entails Figuring Things Out Within the ContentPage: 147All Content Is Organized by ConceptsPage: 147All Content Is Logically InterdependentPage: 148Think Through Your Classes Using Your Knowledge of ThinkingPage: 149A CautionPage: 1508: Discover How the Best Thinkers LearnPage: 153Twenty Ideas for Improving Your StudiesPage: 154The Logic of a Typical College ClassPage: 156Becoming a Skilled ThinkerPage: 157The Design of a Typical College Class and the Typical College StudentPage: 158Figure Out the Underlying Concept of Your CoursesPage: 160Figure Out the Form of Thinking Essential to Courses or SubjectsPage: 162Think Within the Logic of the SubjectPage: 164The Logic of Six Academic DisciplinesPage: 165The Logic of BiologyPage: 165The Logic of EcologyPage: 166The Logic of Aerospace EngineeringPage: 167The Logic of Electrical EngineeringPage: 168The Logic of HistoryPage: 169The Logic of BiochemistryPage: 172Make the Design of the Course Work for YouPage: 183Sample Course: American History, 1600–1800Page: 183Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening, and ThinkingPage: 183Figure Out the Logic of an Article or EssayPage: 185Figure Out of the Logic of a TextbookPage: 187Criteria for Evaluating an Author’s ReasoningPage: 188A Test to Repeat in Every Class and SubjectPage: 1899: Redefine Grades as Levels of Thinking and LearningPage: 191Develop Strategies for Self-­AssessmentPage: 192Use Profiles to Assess Your PerformancePage: 192Exemplary Students (Grade of A)Page: 193High-­Performing Students (Grade of B)Page: 193Mixed-­Quality Students (Grade of C)Page: 194Low-­Performing Students (Grade of D or F)Page: 194Apply Student Profiles to Assess Your Performance Within SubjectsPage: 195Exemplary Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of A)Page: 195High-­Performing Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of B)Page: 196Mixed-­Quality Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of C)Page: 197Low-­Performing Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of D or F)Page: 197ConclusionPage: 19910: Make Decisions and Solve ProblemsPage: 201Making DecisionsPage: 201Evaluating Patterns in Decision-­MakingPage: 202“Big” DecisionsPage: 203The Logic of Decision-­MakingPage: 203Dimensions of Decision-­MakingPage: 206The Early Decisions (Two to Eleven Years of Age)Page: 207Adolescent Decisions (Twelve to Seventeen Years of Age)Page: 208Solving ProblemsPage: 210Becoming an Activist Problem-­SolverPage: 210Evaluating Patterns in Your Problem-­SolvingPage: 211“Big” ProblemsPage: 213Dimensions of Problem-­SolvingPage: 213Avoiding the Pitfalls of Problem-­SolvingPage: 218Analyzing Problems Using the Elements of ThoughtPage: 221The Art of Problem-­SolvingPage: 223ConclusionPage: 22511: Argumentation Theory and Critical ThinkingPage: 227Analyzing and Assessing Arguments—General GuidelinesPage: 229Analyzing the Logic of a Given ArgumentPage: 233Evaluating an Author’s Reasoning Within an ArgumentPage: 23412: Deal with Your Irrational MindPage: 237Take Charge of Your Egocentric NaturePage: 242Understand Egocentric ThinkingPage: 244Understand Egocentrism as a Mind within the MindPage: 246Successful Egocentric ThinkingPage: 248Unsuccessful Egocentric ThinkingPage: 249Rational, Reasonable ThinkingPage: 251Two Egocentric FunctionsPage: 255Egocentric Pathological Tendencies of the Human MindPage: 265Challenge the Egocentric Pathological Tendencies of Your MindPage: 266Defense Mechanisms of the MindPage: 267The Challenge of RationalityPage: 269Take Charge of Your Sociocentric TendenciesPage: 269The Nature of SociocentrismPage: 270Primary Forms of Sociocentric ThoughtPage: 274Social StratificationPage: 280Sociocentric Thinking Is Unconscious and Potentially DangerousPage: 280Sociocentric Uses of LanguagePage: 281Disclose Sociocentric Thinking through Conceptual AnalysisPage: 282Reveal Ideology at Work through Conceptual AnalysisPage: 283ConclusionPage: 28413: Develop as an Ethical ReasonerPage: 285Why People are Confused About EthicsPage: 286The Fundamentals of Ethical ReasoningPage: 288Ethical Concepts and PrinciplesPage: 289The Universal Nature of Ethical PrinciplesPage: 292Distinguishing Ethics from Other Domains of ThinkingPage: 294Understanding Our Native SelfishnessPage: 304ConclusionPage: 30714: How to Detect Media Bias and Political PropagandaPage: 309Why Critical Thinking Is Essential to Making Sense of the NewsPage: 309What Is News?Page: 311Political Views in the News: Understanding the Liberal-­Minded PersonPage: 312The Logic of the News MediaPage: 314Political Influences, Advertising, and Group ThinkPage: 314Technological Noise in the NewsPage: 316What We Need the News Media to Do for UsPage: 316Current Trends Affecting How We See the NewsPage: 317Key Critical Thinking Questions to Ask When Seeking the NewsPage: 317Realities That Impede Our Ability to Get Objective NewsPage: 318The Problem of Fake NewsPage: 320Social Media is an Unreliable News SourcePage: 321Critical Thinking Tools for Understanding Human Reasoning and Media LogicPage: 321Questioning the Reasoning Embedded in a News ArticlePage: 322Intellectual Standards for Assessing News Articles, Editorials, and StoriesPage: 325Characteristics of the Disciplined Mind That Help Us Detect BiasPage: 325Objectivity, Biases, and Underlying AgendasPage: 329Democracy and the News MediaPage: 330Myths That Obscure the Logic of the News MediaPage: 331Bias and Objectivity in the News MediaPage: 331How the News Media View Objectivity TodayPage: 334Forms of ObjectivityPage: 335The Perception of Bias in the MainstreamPage: 337Propaganda and News Story WritingPage: 337Protecting the Home Audience from Guilt FeelingsPage: 339How the News Media Foster Sociocentric ThinkingPage: 340Become an Astute Media ConsumerPage: 342How to Obtain Useful Information from Propaganda and Typical News StoriesPage: 342Steps in Becoming a Critical Consumer of the NewsPage: 343Media Awareness of Media BiasPage: 344Sensitivity to AdvertisersPage: 345Sensitivity to Politicians and the GovernmentPage: 345Sensitivity to Powerful InterestsPage: 346Sensitivity to Their CompetitorsPage: 347The Bias Toward Novelty and SensationalismPage: 347Critical Consumers of the NewsPage: 349Dominant and Dissenting Views: Finding Alternative Sources of InformationPage: 350Buried, Ignored, or Underreported StoriesPage: 351Using the Internet in Seeking the NewsPage: 352Additional Alternative News SourcesPage: 352Readings That Help You Become a More Independent ThinkerPage: 353The Future of the NewsPage: 354Is It Possible for the News Media to Reform?Page: 354Is the Emergence of a “Critical Society” Possible?Page: 355ConclusionPage: 35615: FallaciesPage: 357Truth and Deception in the Human MindPage: 358Three Types of ThinkersPage: 359Uncritical Persons (Intellectually Unskilled Thinkers)Page: 359Skilled Manipulators (Weak-­Sense Critical Thinkers)Page: 360Fairminded Critical Persons (Strong-­Sense Critical Thinkers)Page: 361The Concept of Fallacies of ThoughtPage: 362Naming FallaciesPage: 362Mistakes versus FallaciesPage: 363No Exhaustive List of FallaciesPage: 364Faulty GeneralizationsPage: 365Analyzing GeneralizationsPage: 367Post Hoc GeneralizationsPage: 371Analogies and MetaphorsPage: 371Forty-Four Foul Ways to Win an ArgumentPage: 373Fallacy Detection: Analyzing a Speech from the PastPage: 391Fallacy Detection: Analyzing a More Current Presidential SpeechPage: 395Fallacy Detection: Analyzing a Speech from a Presidential CandidatePage: 398Avoid Two ExtremesPage: 401ConclusionPage: 40116: Learning and Using Information Critically and EthicallyPage: 405The Ideal of Knowledge AcquisitionPage: 405True Loyalty to a DisciplinePage: 406The Gap Between Fact and IdealPage: 407The Ideal Compared to the RealPage: 409The Ideal of MathematicsPage: 410Abstract QuantificationPage: 410The Ideal of Science: Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, BiologyPage: 412The Ideal of Science: History, Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, PsychologyPage: 415The Social Studies as Taught and PracticedPage: 418The Ideal of the Arts and HumanitiesPage: 419Music, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Dance, Literature, PhilosophyPage: 419ConclusionPage: 42217: Learning and Using Information Critically and EthicallyPage: 425The Method and A Model CasePage: 425Realistic UnderstandingPage: 426Be a Critic, Not a CynicPage: 428Recognize the Mental Nature of KnowledgePage: 428Develop Awareness of the Harm from Misuse of InformationPage: 429Question Academic and “Expert” InformationPage: 432Question the Status of Knowledge in a FieldPage: 433A Model Case: Questioning Psychology and the Mental Health ProfessionsPage: 434The Milgram ExperimentPage: 436Scientific Studies in PsychologyPage: 439A Dark Side of the Mental Health ProfessionsPage: 439Legitimizing Deeply Held Social BeliefsPage: 441Questioning PsychotherapyPage: 446Learning From Suspect Claims of Psychology and the Mental Health ProfessionsPage: 448Thinking Psychologically: A PostscriptPage: 450Forms of ThoughtPage: 45018: Strategic ThinkingPage: 453Understanding and Using Strategic ThinkingPage: 453Components of Strategic ThinkingPage: 456The Beginnings of Strategic ThinkingPage: 456Key Idea #1: Thoughts, Feelings, and Desires Are InterdependentPage: 457Key Idea #2: There Is a Logic to This, and You Can Figure It OutPage: 460Key Idea #3: For Thinking to Be of High Quality, We Must Routinely Assess ItPage: 46519: Strategic ThinkingPage: 469Key Idea #4: Our Native Egocentrism Is a Default MechanismPage: 469Key Idea #5: We Must Become Sensitive to the Egocentrism of Those Around UsPage: 473Key Idea #6: The Mind Tends to Generalize Beyond the Original ExperiencePage: 475Key Idea #7: Egocentric Thinking Appears to the Mind as RationalPage: 477Key Idea #8: The Egocentric Mind Is Automatic in NaturePage: 478Key Idea #9: We Often Pursue Power through Dominating or Submissive BehaviorPage: 480Key Idea #10: Humans Are Naturally Sociocentric AnimalsPage: 481Key Idea #11: Developing Rationality Requires WorkPage: 483ConclusionPage: 48420: Becoming an Advanced Thinker: Our ConclusionPage: 485Practicing Skilled ThinkingPage: 485Stage 5: Reaching the Advanced Stage of DevelopmentPage: 486Stage 6: Becoming an Accomplished ThinkerPage: 488Qualities of Mind of an Accomplished ThinkerPage: 490The Inner Logic of the Accomplished ThinkerPage: 491The Ideal ThinkerPage: 491Appendix APage: 493A Brief History of the Idea of Critical ThinkingPage: 493Common Denominators of Critical ThinkingPage: 497Appendix BPage: 501Sample Analysis of The Logic of . . .Page: 501The Logic of EconomicsPage: 505The Logic of SciencePage: 506The Logic of EcologyPage: 507The Logic of AstronomyPage: 508A Glossary of Critical Thinking Terms and ConceptsPage: 511NotesPage: 559ReferencesPage: 563IndexPage: 567Community AnnouncementPage: 589Join the Center for Critical Thinking Community OnlinePage: 589

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